Linguistische Berichte Heft 195

We show that reduced personal argument pronouns in Dutch and German surface in a proper subset of the positions accessible to full argument DPs. Therefore, we argue for a unified syntactic analysis, which takes both types of DPs to be subject to the same phrase structural principles and the same positioning rules, namely, XP-scrambling and XP-'topicalization'. Our argument here rests a. o. t. on the observation that the case against DP-permutability in Dutch has been overstated. As far as syntax proper goes, we suggest that a simple 'filter', banning the scrambling of deaccented DP-objects across the subject is responsible for restrictions on Dutch word order. Our theory has the virtue of providing a unified account for reduced and full DPs in both Dutch and German. We further argue that degrees of constituent permutability and frontability should be derived under a multifactorial account, drawing on independently motivated principles from the syntax-discourse interface and (morpho-)phonology as they interact with the system of pronouns. It follows that, as far as syntax goes, reduced pronouns in Dutch and German must not be treated as 'special clitics'. Neither should they be analyzed as bare X0 -categories. Thus, no syntactic argument for the existence or directional orientation of functional heads can be based on these elements. In developing our account, we draw heavily on colloquial variants of 'Standard German'. Along the way we pay considerable attention to various methodological issues.

Objects in nature often have symmetrical shapes. Many scripts derive from iconographic representations and therefore contain symmetrical letters (intrinsic symmetry). On the other hand there are scripts which contain letters that are the symmetrical counterpart of another letter (such as b-d and p-q). This is called extrinsic symmetry. Scripts are subject to similar conditions of perception as in the perception of space. The following research shows how object constancy is involved in the evolution of scripts. Object constancy is the ability of the brain to recognize objects in 3D space, independent of their orientation. The shape and its mirror image are connected with the same association. A script including letters whose mirror images are connected with a different meaning or sound representation should be less readable because object constancy gives both letters the same association. The study tests the assumption of lower readability in proving an avoidance of extrinsic symmetry. For this purpose a new method in measuring symmetry is used. The examination compares and illustrates symmetry properties of different scripts and shows the following results: Scripts suppress perfect symmetry between two characters by using additional distinctive features. Invented scripts (such as scripts for secret messages, functional scripts and those which are invented for a story) in contrast to widely used scripts are usually not bound to readability. They can therefore use symmetry to create new characters. Such a font is economical with regard to shape variability, and produces an aesthetic and homogeneous impression.

The paper examines the properties of the so-called impersonal passives in Irish, Polish, and Old English with the purpose of determining whether it is justified to claim that they contain the expletive pro subject. Since the constructions scrutinised lack the properties characteristic of AgrP, i.e. NOM Case and subject-verb agreement, it is proposed that the relevant structures in these languages do not project AgrP altogether. The Irish and Polish impersonals are shown to contain a covert theta-marked subject, whose presence is supported by the tests relating to anaphors and subject-oriented adverbials. The covert subject in Irish is an empty category with the features [ +number, -person], while in Polish impersonals the subject is realised as PROa,b· In contrast, Old English impersonal passives are shown to be genuinely subjectless. This difference between Irish and Polish on the one hand, and Old English on the other, derives from the fact that impersonal structures in the former languages do not exhibit external theta-role absorption and hence should not be classified as passive, while in Old English the external theta-role is regularly absorbed by the passive morphology. The general conclusion reached is that it is inadequate, at least for the languages examined, to posit expletive pro as the subject of impersonal constructions.